glossary of terms
Biotechnology: The use of living organisms or other biological systems to develop food, drugs and other products. Agricultural biotechnology is an advanced technology that allows plant breeders to make precise genetic changes to impart beneficial traits to the crop plants that humans rely on for food and fiber. Plant breeders can select genes that produce specific beneficial traits and move them from one organism to another. This process is far more precise and selective than traditional crossbreeding, which involves the transfer of tens of thousands of genes, and it provides plant developers with a more detailed knowledge of the changes being made. As an example, "Bt" crops that are protected against insect damage contain selected genes found in the common soil bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis. The Bt genes contain information that the plant uses to produce a protein toxic to the larvae of certain plant pests but is safe for humans, animals and other insects. Pest-protected Bt plants stop these insects from eating and destroying the plant, which improves farmers' yields and reduces the need for pesticide applications.
Germplasm: Refers to the total genetic variability within a given set (e.g., a seed company's collection of seeds) for a particular organism.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO): ISO is the world's largest developer of standards. Although its principal activity is the development of technical standards, ISO standards also have important economic and social repercussions. ISO is a non-governmental organization comprised of the national standards institutes of 148 countries, on the basis of one member per country, with a Central Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, that coordinates the system. Third-party certification systems evaluate whether a manufacturer conforms to ISO standards.
Pipeline: The research pipeline, in this context, refers to the stage to which a soybean variety has advanced in the development process. A number of improved soybean traits are in the research pipeline. While Select Yield and Quality (SYQ), low linolenic and mid-oleic soybeans are the first to emerge from the pipeline, other varieties will include high-oleic, low-saturate, higher metabolizable energy and low-phytate soybeans.
Trait: A characteristic of an organism that manifests itself through physical attributes. Enhanced soybean traits can help create soybean oils that have increased stability or decreased saturated fat.
USDA-ARS: The United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), the USDA's principal in-house research agency, works to ensure that Americans have reliable, adequate supplies of high-quality food and other agricultural products. ARS accomplishes its goals through scientific discoveries that help solve problems in crop and livestock production and protection, human nutrition, and the interaction of agriculture and the environment.
Value Chain: A metaphorical term describing the people and industries linked together to produce and consume soybeans, food products with soybean oil and protein for human
consumption, and soybean meal for livestock and poultry. This includes farmers, processors, seed industry, food industry, feed industry and finally those who consume the end-product.
Variety: Standard industry term for seed offered by technology companies to growers.
food industry terms
Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA): An omega-3 fatty acid, as are the fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA are found primarily in fish while ALA is highly concentrated in certain plant oils such as soybean, flaxseed, canola and walnut oils. Once ingested, the body converts ALA to EPA and DHA. See omega-3 fatty acid and essential fatty acid.
Antioxidant: A synthetic or natural substance or agent that neutralizes free radicals and helps prevent cell damage that may lead to cancer or heart disease. The isoflavones found in soy, such as genistein, are good antioxidants.
In terms of soybean oil-based trans fat solutions, edible oils used in food applications often require the addition of some type of natural or synthetic antioxidant to prevent rancidity and extend shelf life. The most-commonly used synthetic antioxidants are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), propyl gallate and tertiary-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ). Studies have shown that adding just 0.02 percent TBHQ to soybean oil increases stability almost four times of that observed in soybean oil without added antioxidants. The most commonly used natural antioxidants are tocopherols, which are naturally found in soybean oil up to 1000 ppm. While processing removes some tocopherols, companies can modify deodorization conditions to make sure an appreciable amount remains in the oil to help prevent oxidation.
Blending: A processing technique for creating trans fat-free products with soybean oil, blends can be formulated with traditional oils or oil fractions that do not contain trans fat and specially processed oils that contain little or no trans. Blends either combine fully hydrogenated "hard stock," which is trans-free, with unsaturated, non-hydrogenated oil or more stable oils with partially-hydrogenated oils. Suppliers have developed blended shortening products that support low/no-trans labeling for essentially all baked products.
Chemical Interesterification: Variant term for traditional interesterification.
Degumming: Phosolipids are removed by a water-washing step to minimize deterioration of the oil under heating conditions in baking and frying applications. Degumming technologies include modified citric acid pretreatment, soluble silicate treatment, silica gel treatment and enzymatic treatment.
Enzymatic Interesterification: An alternative to hydrogenation, enzymatic interesterification allows for precision and control over achieving specific melting profiles. The catalyst is a 1,3-specific lipase. The natural enzyme rearranges the fatty acids in the 1-and 3-positions. (In contrast, all three positions shift randomly in traditional interesterification.) The reaction is relatively slow and can be stopped at any time to ensure the right degree of interesterification. The enzymatic process does not involve chemicals and produces no harmful byproducts, thereby offering a precise, cost-effective, environmentally friendly method of altering the melting profile and creating more stability. Common uses for enzymatic interesterication include margarine,
baked goods and confections.
Essential Fatty Acids: Fatty acids necessary for human health that can only be obtained from dietary sources. This type of fatty acid is not produced by the human body. Soybean oil contains two essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic.
Fry Life: The length of time an oil lasts in a fryer before it turns rancid, becomes dark in color or forms free fatty acids. Stable oils have a longer fry life.
Gelling: When modifying the fat profile of a food product, one must analyze fat's function in the particular application. Hydrogenating a liquid oil to make it more solid not only improves stability and extends shelf life, but it often addresses specific system needs such as bulking effects and mouthfeel characteristics, namely body and creaminess. Gelling and texture building agents help sustain some of these desirable characteristics. Reformulation of foods with less saturated and non-trans fats using liquid oils requires the use of gelling and texture stabilizing agents such as hydrocolloids like pectins, caraginan, gum arabic, gelatin and xantan gum.
High Palmitic and Stearic Soybean Oil: Soybean oil high in palmitic and stearic acids could provide stability without hydrogenation. Two references include Neff and List (1999) and Wilson (1999). Also see palmitic acid and stearic acid.
High-Palmitic Soybean Oil: Soybean oil high in palmitic acid could provide stability without hydrogenation. Two references include Neff and List (1999) and Shen et al (1997). Also see palmitic acid.
High-Stearic Soybean Oil: Soybean oil high in stearic acid could provide stability without hydrogenation. Two references include Neff and List (1999) and Knowlton et al (1999). Also see stearic acid.
Hydrogenation: The process of chemically adding hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to the unsaturated "hydrogen short" portions of a natural fat. The addition of hydrogen reduces the reactivity of the fat toward oxygen and thus stabilizes and retards rancidity development in the fat. Hydrogenation usually raises the melting point of a fat or changes it from a liquid oil to a solid fat. Partial hydrogenation is the degree to which a fat is hydrogenated. Completely hydrogenated fats are solid and, therefore, more stable. Partially hydrogenated fats are used in various applications, such as crackers and baked goods.
Interesterification: A process that rearranges fat molecules without adding hydrogen molecules; a possible alternative to hydrogenation. See enzymatic interesterification and traditional interesterification.
Linolenic Acid: An omega-3 polyunsaturated acid found in many seed-derived oils such as soybean oil and fish oil. Liquid soybean oil contains approximately eight percent of this essential fatty acid, and is one of the few non-fish oils that is rich in linolenic acid.
Low Linolenic Soybean Oil: Low linolenic soybean oil can provide increased flavor stability, thus reducing or eliminating the need for hydrogenation. Several seed providers have announced the commercialization of soybean varieties with low linolenic acid, including VISTIVETM from Monsanto; a one percent low linolenic variety from Iowa State University; and Pioneer® variety 93M20 that was developed in partnership by Bunge and DuPont.
Mid-Oleic Soybean Oil: The mid-oleic variety makes significant progress towards an improved end product by increasing stability and resistance to rancidity.
Monounsaturated Fatty Acid: A type of unsaturated fatty acid in which the chain of carbon atoms is missing one pair of hydrogen atoms. Monounsaturated fat is found mostly in vegetable oils such as olive, canola, soybean and peanut. Because it aids stability, oils high in monounsaturated fatty acids are good for frying applications. Soybean oil contains approximately 24 percent monounsaturated fatty acids. When substituted for saturated fat, monounsaturated fat helps lower Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDLs, also known as "bad" cholesterol while leaving High-Density Lipoproteins (HDLs, also known as "good" cholesterol) unchanged.
Oleic Acid: A monounsaturated fatty acid. An oil high in oleic acid is stable and resists
rancidity. Oleic acid also contributes to increased shelf life.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids: A type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that has been recognized as having health benefits, including helping to regulate blood pressure and blood lipid levels. Omega-3 fatty acids also may help to lower the risk of heart disease, help prevent cancer, and may be essential for brain development in infants. They are found primarily in fish oils but are also found in a few plant sources like soybeans.
Palmitic Acid: A saturated fatty acid very stable for frying purposes. Soybean oil contains approximately 10 percent palmitic acid.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid: A type of unsaturated fatty acid in which the chain of carbon atoms is missing two or more pairs of hydrogen atoms. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in nuts and vegetable oils such as soybean, safflower and sunflower, and in fatty fish. When used instead of saturated fats, polyunsaturated fats tend to lower LDL ("bad") cholesterol levels. Soybean oil contains approximately 61 percent polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Rancidity: The stage in fat oxidation characterized by development of easily recognized sharp, acrid and pungent off-flavors and odors. An oil or fat becomes rancid when oxygen is allowed to break it down. Oils higher in unsaturated fatty acids are more prone to rancidity than oils high in saturated fat.
Saturated Fatty Acids: Saturated fats are among the most common fats in our diet. They are found predominantly in animal foods like meat, poultry and full-fat dairy products, and in tropical oils like palm and coconut. Diets high in saturated fats are associated with higher risks of heart disease, certain cancers and stroke. Soybean oil is considered one of the most well-balanced vegetable oils, with a low saturated fat content of 15 percent.
Shelf life: The length of time a product lasts on the shelf before becoming rancid. The more stable an oil is, the longer the shelf life of the finished product and the oil.
Stability: The ability to maintain proper flavor and odor. Oils may develop off-flavors and rancid odors over time, but soybean oils with decreased levels of linolenic acid and/or increased levels of oleic acid can help food products stay shelf-stable longer.
Stearic Acid: A saturated fatty acid very stable for frying purposes. Stearic acid is solid at room temperature. Many studies show saturated fatty acids raise blood cholesterol. However, other studies show that some saturated fatty acids like stearic acid may not affect or may even lower total blood cholesterol.
Texture Building Agents: See gelling.
Traditional Interesterification: In this processing technique, the goal is to reach the right melting profile of a blend of saturated and unsaturated fats. The fatty acids of the triglycerides are randomly shifted and exchange positions through the use of a chemical catalyst. While this method offers less control than hydrogenation, traditional interesterification provides an option for reducing the melting point and increasing stability and creaminess without producing trans fatty acids, and the process takes only a few minutes. The most common chemical catalysts are sodium methylate (methoxide) or sodium ethylate (ethoxylate). Common uses for this process are margarine, baked goods and confections.
Trans Fatty Acids: Trans fatty acids (also known as trans fats) are produced during the
hydrogenation of vegetable oils, a process that adds hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids in
vegetable oil and changes the fat from a liquid to a soft or solid state. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils can replace naturally solid, saturate-rich fats, such as lard and beef tallow, in margarines and baked foods, as well as commercial frying where vegetable oils cannot be used.
Trans fatty acids occur naturally in small amounts in meats and dairy products. Trans fats
account for only two to four percent of the average American's total calories. Regular, non-hydrogenated soybean oil does not contain trans fatty acids.
Trans Fat Regulations: Effective January 1, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) will require food manufacturers to include trans fatty acids as a line item on a food product's Nutrition Facts panel. Products containing 0.5 grams or more of trans fats will be subject to mandatory labeling.
Trans Fat Solutions: A number of soybean oil-based alternatives exist to hydrogenation. These range from relatively simple processing techniques, such as interesterification and blending, while others involve complex seed breeding technologies, whether through traditional breeding or advancements in biotechnology.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Unsaturated fatty acids are found in foods from both plant and animal sources. Unsaturated fatty acids are further divided into monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Vegetable Oils: A naturally occurring fat or oil derived from a plant or vegetable. Soybean oil is the most commonly used vegetable oil in the United States. Vegetable oils are low in saturated fatty acids.
Vitamin E: Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant vitamin that prevents cell damage that may lead to cancer. By inhibiting the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, Vitamin E may reduce the risk of heart disease. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils like soybean oil.
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